[-AI-3.5]History of the Mediterranean and Persia: From the 12th century to the 19th century AD

Abstract

地中海とペルシャの歴史は、世界史で最も重要な歴史の一つであるため、理解する必要があります。この歴史を理解することは、中東やアジアの政治状況や現代世界における地政学的変化を理解するために必要です。本記事では、12世紀から19世紀までの地中海とペルシャの歴史を紹介します。

12世紀：十字軍。十字軍は、イスラム教勢力と戦うために主に目的を持った中世のヨーロッパの宗教的・政治的運動でした。背景には、イスラム教の支配下にある聖地エルサレムを回復したいという願望がありました。中東は、古代からペルシャ帝国、ローマ帝国、アラブ・イスラム勢力などの様々な力が支配し、地域を支配するために競い合っていました。この混沌期に、十字軍が登場し、キリスト教徒はエルサレムの聖地を奪回するための東方遠征を開始しました。東洋の思想が西洋に流れ込み、中東やイスラム文化がヨーロッパに広がりました。

13世紀：モンゴル帝国の侵略。モンゴル帝国は、東アジアや中央アジアを強力に支配していました。大多数のモンゴル人は遊牧民で、彼らの生活様式で戦闘スキルを磨き、巨大な帝国を築きました。モンゴル帝国の中東侵攻は、13世紀中盤に始まりました。最初に、モンゴル帝国はイラン高原を征服し、ホラサン地域を支配しました。その後、バグダードが占領され、アッバース朝カリフ国は破壊され、1258年にバグダードにイルハン朝が建国されました。モンゴル帝国の侵略はイスラム世界に大きな影響を与えました。これにより、ペルシャ文化の発展や、イスラム世界への中国文化の影響など、多くの文化的な成果が生まれました。イルハン朝は、ペルシャ文化に深い影響を与え、政治、社会、文化の改革が行われました。たとえば、知識人の組み込みや行政改革などが行われました。ペルシャの詩人や芸術家、ウルグ・ベグの天文台やモスクなどは、現在でも芸術作品や構造物として受け継がれています。

16世紀：オスマン帝国。16世紀には、オスマン帝国が領土を拡大し、軍事力と政治的影響力を強化しました。この時代、オスマン帝国はイラン、イラク、現在のシリア、レバノン、イスラエル、ヨルダン、エジプトなどの地域に影響力を持ちました。オスマン帝国は、地中海を支配するために必要な戦略的港湾や沿岸地域を確保することに大きな関心を抱いていました。各地域で能力のある行政官を任命して、各地域の統治を支援しました。イスラム法に基づいて、行政官は裁判所で宗教生活や財務問題に関する判断を下すことができる裁判官として働きました。オスマン帝国の国家システムはイスラム教の規範に基づいていました。オスマン帝国は、大砲、ドリル、銃などの軍事技術を大規模に採用しました。オスマン帝国の経済は、東南ヨーロッパと中東の交通路に長く頼っていました。

18世紀：ナポレオンのエジプト遠征。1798年、ナポレオン・ボナパルトは地中海を渡ってエジプトに上陸し、大陸のオスマン帝国から追放された後の出来事でした。当時、エジプトはオスマン帝国の支配下にあり、フランスの侵略は脅威を与えました。一方、フランスはエジプトの征服を、イギリスへの攻撃の手段として見ました。ナポレオンは、アレキサンドリア、カイロ、シリアなどの地域を征服するために軍事行動を行いました。エジプトの政治と経済に改革を導入し、-ナポレオンの法典-を含むフランス文明と法律をエジプトに持ち込み、当時のエジプト社会に大きな影響を与えました。しかし、ナポレオンのエジプト遠征は短命に終わりました。

Table of contents

• Introduction
• 12th century : Crusades
• 13th century : Invasion of the Mongol Empire
• 16th century : Ottoman Empire
• 18th century : Napoleon’s expedition to Egypt
• 19th century : Power struggle between Britain and Russia
• Conclusion

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Introduction

The history of the Mediterranean and Persia may not be a familiar area for American students, but it is necessary to understand as it is one of the most important histories in world history. The regions around the Mediterranean have experienced political, religious, cultural, economic, and geographical changes from ancient times to the present day. Understanding this history is necessary to understand the political situation in the Middle East and Asia and the geopolitical changes of the modern world. In this article, we will introduce the history of the Mediterranean and Persia from the 12th to the 19th century and provide information for American students to understand.-

12th Century : Crusades

The Crusades were a medieval European religious and political movement primarily aimed at fighting Islamic forces. The background was the desire to reclaim the holy land of Jerusalem, which was under Islamic control.

The Middle East has been dominated by various powers such as the Roman and Persian empires and Arab-Islamic forces. These powers fiercely competed to control the region.

During this chaotic period, the Crusades emerged, and Christians launched Eastern expeditions with the aim of recapturing the holy land of Jerusalem. This led to a battle between the two opposing forces.

The creation of the Crusader states had an influence that spread across various regions. Eastern thought flowed into the West, and Middle Eastern and Islamic culture spread to Europe.

13th Century : Invasion of the Mongol Empire

The Mongol Empire ruled over East Asia and Central Asia with immense power. The majority of the Mongolian people were nomadic, and they honed their combat skills in their way of life, building a vast empire.

The invasion of the Mongol Empire in the Middle East began in the mid-13th century. Initially, the Mongol Empire conquered the Iranian plateau, and ruled over the region of Khorasan. Later, Baghdad was captured, the Abbasid Caliphate was destroyed, and the Ilkhanate was established in Baghdad in 1258.

The Mongol Empire’s invasion had a significant impact on the Islamic world. Many historical sources were lost, cities and towns were destroyed, and many people were massacred. However, at the same time, the Mongol Empire supported science, culture, and the arts. This resulted in many cultural achievements, such as the development of Persian culture and the influence of Chinese culture on the Islamic world.

The Ilkhanate had a profound influence on Persian culture, and many reforms were made in politics, society, and culture. For example, there were efforts to incorporate knowledgeable people and administrative reforms. These efforts greatly contributed to the development of Persian culture.

The influence of this era remains in many cultural heritage sites present today. The poets and artists of Persia, the observatory and mosque of Ulugh Beg, and many other things have been passed down as works of art and structures that last even to this day.

16th Century : Ottoman Empire

In the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire expanded its territory and strengthened its military and political influence. During this era, the Ottoman Empire held influence over regions such as Iran, Iraq, present-day Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, and Egypt. The Ottoman Empire had a significant interest in securing strategic ports and coastal areas necessary for expanding national interests and dominating the Mediterranean.

The Ottoman Empire conquered many territories where Muslims ruled, exercising tremendous influence over Islam. It supported Islamic religious life within its territories and constructed numerous mosques for this purpose. It appointed capable administrative officials to support governance in various regions. The rapid expansion of the Ottoman Empire impacted culture, art, architecture, and social- economic systems.

The relationship between the Ottoman Empire and Islam was very close. The empire had an enormous number of mosques across its regions, and religious scholars received Islamic education in theological schools. Based on Islamic law, administrative officials served as judicial advisors and could pass judgments related to religious life and financial issues in courts. The Ottoman Empire’s national system was based on Islamic norms.

The Ottoman Empire adopted military technologies such as cannons, drills, and guns on a large scale. It also introduced new tactics to carry out effective warfare. This strategy allowed the empire to expand its territories and dominate the East- West trade routes.

The Ottoman Empire’s economy had long relied on transportation routes in Southeast Europe and the Middle East. The empire controlled key points on these trade routes and profited from migrant workers, the silk road system, and sponsored merchants. In addition, the empire could access the European market. Thus, the Ottoman Empire achieved military-political influence, cultural-artistic development, and social-economic stability.

18th Century : Napoleon’s Egyptian Expedition

In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte led the French army across the Mediterranean to land in Egypt, after having been expelled from the continental Ottoman Empire. At the time, Egypt was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, and the French invasion posed a threat to it. On the other hand, France saw the conquest of Egypt as a means to launch an attack against Britain.

Napoleon undertook military operations to gain control of Egypt, conquering regions such as Alexandria, Cairo, and Syria. He introduced reforms to Egypt’s politics and economy, including the -Napoleon Code,- which brought French civilisation and law to Egypt and had a significant impact on Egyptian society at that time.

However, Napoleon’s campaign in Egypt was short-lived. The French army was defeated by the British invasion of Egypt and the Ottoman Empire’s counterattack, and Napoleon returned to France. Nevertheless, Napoleon’s expedition had a significant impact on the history of the Middle East. The Napoleon Code spread progressive thoughts through Egyptian society, and it became a catalyst for French civilization and law to spread to the Middle East.

In the early 19th century, Britain entered Egypt, and the decline of the Ottoman Empire continued. Napoleon’s expedition into Egypt was a historical event that paved the way for France to advance into the Middle East, and its influence still remains in the world to this day.

19th Century : Power Struggle between Great Britain and Russia

-In the 19th century, Britain and Russia engaged in a power struggle in the Middle East. Britain is said to have expanded into the Persian Gulf region and placed it under its control to protect trade routes from India. On the other hand, Russia pursued a southern policy and extended its influence to the Caucasus and Central Asia, and even invaded Persia.

This power struggle between the two countries fueled the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Although Britain and Russia mediated over the Ottoman Empire’s sovereignty, the mediation became a remote cause of the First World War. As a result, the Middle East experienced border reorganization and independence movements. Furthermore, taking advantage of the Ottoman Empire’s collapse, Britain took control of Iraq, Palestine, Egypt, and other countries, which also had an impact on the emergence of modern Middle East issues.

Throughout this period of history, the influence that Britain and Russia gained in the Middle East continues to have an impact to this day. However, this history may not be familiar to many American students. Nevertheless, this history is an important background to understanding the current political situation in the Middle East, and it is necessary to deepen our understanding of it.

Conclusion

The history of the Middle East and Asia has always been tumultuous due to power struggles and religious wars. Among the influential countries, powerful forces such as the Mongol and Ottoman Empires ruled, but later, with the expansion of colonialism and oil exploration, the situation in Middle East Asia changed significantly. Political conflicts and concerns over civil war and terrorism continue to this day. America has deep ties with the region and has made significant contributions towards stabilizing the situation. However, there are often new problems that arise due to American intervention. By reflecting on the past, we can deepen our understanding and move towards a better future.