[-AI-3.5]Chinese history: From the 12th century to the 19th century

Abstract

12世紀には、宋朝が科挙制度を導入し、平民出身者が官吏になる機会が与えられ、社会的流動性が高まりました。同時に、農業と商業が繁栄し、繁栄した時代を迎えました。宋朝軍は防衛に重要な存在でした。弓や矢、投石器、そして火薬を使い、強力で効率的な軍隊を編成することができました。先進的な医学、算術、天文学も宋朝時代に発展しました。また、宋朝は文化や芸術の発展にも重要な貢献をしました。詩、書道、絵画などの芸術形式が広がり、多くの芸術家が登場した。

13世紀には、モンゴル帝国が支配する時代が訪れました。モンゴルの侵攻により、中国は大きな混乱を経験しました。多くの人々がモンゴル帝国に従わなければならなかった一方で、中国文化はモンゴルに影響を与えました。元朝はこの時期に成立し、中国がモンゴルの支配下にある間統治しました。文化や芸術の発展も見られ、独自のスタイルや形式が生み出されました。

14世紀には、明朝が成立し、中国は再び国家統一を達成しました。永楽帝は賢明な統治者の一人であり、中国で最も有名な統治者の一人です。彼の治世において、国内外で大きな進歩が見られました。永楽帝は外交政策にも注力し、モンゴル帝国や東南アジアの王国と国際関係を構築し、多くの外交使節を派遣しました。さらに、永楽帝は中国の南部の領土を拡大し、大理やベトナムの一部を支配下に置きました。明朝は仏教、儒教、道教など多くの宗教を受け入れましたが、永楽帝は後に仏教や道教に取り締まりを強め、儒教の支配力を強化しました。しかし、永楽帝の死後、明朝は経済的に脆弱になり、外部の圧力に直面し、腐敗した指導者たちが自己の利益のために権力を乱用したことが明朝の崩壊の土台を築きました。

15世紀には、中国は荘厳な歴史的事件を経験しました。靖難の変は、政治的紛争から始まった朱棣第6皇帝が王位を簒奪するための戦いでした。この時期、国内に内部紛争が起こり、王たちは自然災害や反乱軍と戦いながら戦役に備えました。海禁は、欧州諸国が中国の海域を支配しようとする試みから中国の海を守るために導入され、外国との貿易を禁止しました。中国の船は艦隊で運航され、秘密裏の貿易が必要でした。一方、熟練した中国の航海士鄭和は、東南アジア、インド洋、アフリカ沿岸などを航海しました。したがって、15世紀の中国は政治、経済、科学、技術の進歩を見せ、世界的な注目を集めるようになった。この時代の歴史は、現代の中国文化や価値観に重要な影響を与えました。

16世紀は明朝の崩壊の前兆でした。この時代は、農業と商業が両方とも繁栄し、多くの綿や絹製品が生産される繁栄した経済を特徴としました。ただし、民族的少数派の反乱が増加するにつれて内部紛争が勃発しました。反乱の原因はしばしば過剰な課税や厳しい税制に関係していました。多くの地方官吏が腐敗し、農民たちは怒りを引き起こしました。明朝政府は反乱を長期間鎮圧するのに苦労しました。特に、崇祯帝の治世には、愚かな政策を実行し、宮廷内の多くの勢力から反対を受けるなど、内部の混乱が悪化しました。最終的に、彼の政策は明朝の崩壊に直接つながり、国は清朝に取って代わられました。

Table of contents

• Introduction
• 12th century
• 13th century
• 14th century
• 15th century
• 16th century
• 17th century
• 18th century
• 19th century
• Conclusion

-- CAUTION

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Introduction

I would like to introduce you to the history of China. From the 12th century to the 19th century, there were many political changes, developments in art and culture, and invasions by foreign powers.

In this article, we will explain these events in detail and learn the basics of Chinese history. However, we will also provide detailed explanations of minor descriptions and important figures so that even beginners can easily understand Chinese history. We have put our best efforts into making this article easy to read and interesting. Please read it through to the end. Thank you.

12th century

In the 12th century, the Song Dynasty introduced the imperial examination system which provided an opportunity for people from peasant backgrounds to become officials and increased social mobility. At the same time, agriculture and commerce thrived, resulting in a prosperous era.

The Song army was pivotal for defence. With the use of bows and arrows, catapults, and gunpowder, they could field a powerful and efficient army. Advanced medicine, arithmetic, and astronomy also flourished during the Song Dynasty.

Furthermore, the Song Dynasty made significant contributions to the development of culture and the arts. Poetry, calligraphy, painting, and other art forms became popular, and many artists emerged.

13th century

The 13th century was a time when the Mongol Empire ruled. China experienced great turmoil during this time due to the Mongol invasions. Many people had to follow the Mongol Empire, but on the other hand, Chinese culture influenced the Mongols. The Yuan Dynasty was established during this period and ruled during the period when China was under Mongol rule. Cultural and artistic development was also observed, and unique styles and forms were created. People at that time seemed to take great pride in their own culture and art. However, it did not always continue even after the war ended.

14th century

With the establishment of the Ming Dynasty, China once again achieved national unity. Emperor Yongle is considered a wise ruler and one of China’s most famous rulers. During his reign, China made great progress both domestically and internationally.

Emperor Yongle also focused on foreign policy. He established international relations with the Mongol Empire and kingdoms in Southeast Asia, sending many diplomatic missions. Additionally, Emperor Yongle expanded China’s southern borders, bringing parts of Dali and Vietnam under its control.

Religious reforms were also carried out. While the Ming Dynasty accepted many religions like Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, Emperor Yongle later cracked down on Buddhism and Taoism to strengthen Confucian control.

However, after Emperor Yongle’s death, the Ming Dynasty became economically fragile, faced external pressures, and eventually collapsed due to corrupt leaders abusing their power for personal gain. These events laid the foundation for the downfall of the Ming Dynasty.

15th century

In the 15th century, China experienced significant events such as the Jingnan Campaign, maritime prohibitions, Zheng He’s voyages, and the construction of the Three Gorges Dam. The Jingnan Campaign was a battle for the 6th emperor Zhu Di to claim his throne, which originated from political conflicts within the imperial court. During this time, internal strife arose in the country, and the kings prepared for the campaign while fighting natural disasters and rebels. Maritime prohibitions were also introduced to protect China’s seas from European nations attempting to dominate them, resulting in the banning of foreign trade. Chinese ships were operated in fleets, and clandestine trade was necessary for transactions with other countries. Meanwhile, the skilled Chinese navigator Zheng He embarked on three major voyages that took him through southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean, and the coast of Africa, establishing the Mogao Caves culture and Silk Road culture. On the other hand, the construction of the Three Gorges Dam was also underway during this period. It aimed to prevent natural disasters by building a dam in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River for hydroelectric power generation and flood control. The construction of this dam contributed greatly to China’s energy production and the country’s development. Thus, in the 15th century, China witnessed the progress of politics, economy, science, and technology and began to attract worldwide attention. The era’s history had a significant influence on modern Chinese culture and values.

16th century

The 16th century was a prelude to the collapse of the Ming dynasty. This era was characterised by a flourishing economy where both agriculture and commerce thrived, producing many cotton and silk products. However, the increasing number of rebellions among ethnic minorities led to internal strife within the Ming government. The reasons for the rebellions were often related to excessive taxation or a harsh tax system. Many local officials became corrupt and indulged in extravagance, resulting in unfair treatment of impoverished farmers and stirring up their anger. The Ming government struggled to suppress the rebellions for a long time. In particular, during the reign of Emperor Chongzhen, internal chaos worsened as he implemented foolish policies and faced opposition from many forces within the court. Ultimately, his policies directly led to the collapse of the Ming dynasty, and the country was replaced by the Qing dynasty. However, this era also saw significant progress in culture and the arts, with new art forms emerging and many famous artists prospering. There was also a growing interest in Western culture and scientific technology, and many Western students came to visit. This era witnessed diverse developments before the crisis of the Ming dynasty became apparent, but the worsening internal strife and minority rebellions led to a deteriorating situation within the country.

In the 17th century, the Ming Dynasty collapsed and the Qing Dynasty began to rule China. The Qing Dynasty was established by rulers of the Manchu ethnic group. They maintained Chinese traditions while preserving their own culture. Taiwan was initially occupied by the Dutch, but in 1662, Zheng Chenggong arrived and brought it back under Chinese rule. Christianity was illegalized under the Christian prohibition order even though it was under the rule of the Qing Dynasty at the time. During his long reign, Emperor Kangxi implemented many reforms and developed the Chinese economy, but foreign pressures continued to increase.

18th century

The 18th century, also known as the height of the Qing Dynasty, saw the reign of Emperor Yongzheng, during which agriculture, commerce, education, and culture within the country flourished. His son, Emperor Qianlong, experienced wars with the British over opium, interventions from other foreign powers, and suppression of uprisings. While Emperor Qianlong focused on both court and domestic economic development, he also supported publications and artistic works in various fields, including astronomy, mathematics, Chinese poetry, painting, architecture, Mongolian and Manchu culture. The treaty with Britain addressed trade issues in Guangzhou, resulting in a stronger position for British merchants in China. However, the treaty caused a sense of humiliating defeat for China, leading to the Opium War and subsequent events.

19th century

In the 19th century, various events occurred in the history of China. There were events such as the Taiping Rebellion, the peasant uprising, and the signing of the Tianjin Treaty, which marked the beginning of the first Western powers’ dominance over China. Later, the Boxer Rebellion erupted, deepening the confrontation with Western powers. The Xinhai Revolution broke out, and in the process leading up to the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912, China’s history underwent significant changes. These events had a great impact on China’s political and social changes and their influence continues to this day in modern China.

Conclusion

China’s history has gone through numerous dynasties and political and cultural changes. This article covers the history from the 12th to the 19th century, which includes the wars, politics, and cultural changes of various dynasties such as the Song, Yuan, and Qing dynasties. Additionally, events such as the Opium War and the Boxer Rebellion led to wars and diplomatic negotiations with foreign powers. China’s history continues to change constantly, along with its diverse dynasties and cultures.